educational package

Title:	Field of Wishes - an educational package on animal behaviour.
Author:	Raymond Rohner
Year:	1997
Abstract:	This document contains the text of the educational package on animal behaviour, which was produced as part of PIGVISION's project FIELD OF WISHES.
Archiv.-No.:	L02-97
Acknowledgement:	FIELD OF WISHES was supported by the Science & Technology Awareness Program of the Australian Commonwealth Department of Industry, Science & Tourism.

PIGVISION Library

an educational package on animal behaviour a PIGVISION project Concept and development: Raymond Rohner, Kensington VIC; Photography: Ron Nester, W.E.P.P. , Hobart TAS; Editing: Helen Cushing, Hobart TAS; Graphic Design: Patrick Badger, Hobart TAS; Pre-Press: Show Ads, Hobart TAS; Printing: Monotone Art Printers, Hobart TAS ©1997 Raymond Rohner Published by Raymond Rohner. No part of this publication may be reproduced by any process, electronic or otherwise, without the specific written permission of the copyright owner. Enquiries should be addressed to E-mail: rrohner@ozemail.com.au About this package FIELD OF WISHES is an educational package on animal behaviour. It provides teachers with background information, resources and suggestions to plan and prepare a teaching course for year 9/10 high school students. Focussing on farm animals, the package is particularly suited for schools offering agricultural studies in their curriculum. Its flexible design, however, and open-ended approach to animal behaviour, allows teachers from other levels and disciplines to adapt individual aspects and topics to suit their own context. The package contains an information sheet for school principals and curriculum coordinators, a teacher's guide and resource materials which are divided into four focus areas. FIELD OF WISHES is also designed to help increase awareness and understanding of the central role agricultural science plays in Australia's economic and social well-being. It has been sponsored by the Science & Technology Awareness Program of the Commonwealth Department of Industry, Science and Tourism in Canberra. A range of suggested exercises in this package will involve students in their own research projects. The exercises of the fourth focus area explore the pig's feeding behaviour and guide students towards a final experiment. This final experiment symbolically links science with human desire, and is recommended as a fun Open Day event in which students present their own research in animal behaviour to a public audience. About PIGVISION PIGVISION is the name of a program which sets out to explore the interface of art and science. Its research projects have an artistic bias and are conducted within the field of pig husbandry. PIGVISION has been developed since 1993 by Raymond Rohner, who studied animal science at the Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, Switzerland and Fine Arts at the University of Tasmania in Hobart, Australia. Several PIGVISION projects have been documented on the World Wide Web, including FIELD OF WISHES. About the Science & Technology Awareness Program The Science & Technology Awareness Program was established by the Commonwealth Government in 1989. It aims to increase awareness and understanding of the central role which science and technology play in Australia's economic and social well-being. The program has been devised as an inter-related suite of activities, each with particular target groups, derived from an overall strategy which has short, medium and long-term objectives. The ultimate vision of the program is the development of a nation whose citizens are well-informed about and comfortable in debating science and technology issues, and whose young people give due consideration to studying science, engineering and technology at a tertiary level. Acknowledgements This project was supported by a grant from the Science & Technology Awareness Program of the Commonwealth Department of Industry, Science & Tourism. The views expressed here are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views of the Commonwealth Department of Industry, Science & Tourism, the Curriculum Corporation and other people involved. Many people have contributed to this project. Without their ideas and energy, it would not exist. Their assistance is greatly appreciated. Special thanks are due to Jacob Tammens and the students of his year 9/10 agricultural studies class from the Sheffield District High School in Tasmania. Their collaboration in trialling the PIGVISION experiments was enthusiastic. Many thanks also to Jenni Wilkins, President of the National Association of Agricultural Educators, Alistair Primrose, President of the Tasmanian Branch of the National Association of Agricultural Educators, Prof. Paul Hemsworth, from the Animal Welfare Centre in Victoria, and Dr. Rolf Beilharz from the University of Melbourne. This package uses outcomes from Science-a curriculum profile for Australian schools, Technology-a curriculum profile for Australian schools and Studies of society and environment-a curriculum profile for Australian schools. Permission has been given by the publisher, Curriculum Corporation. Foreword The colourful presence of balloons echoes the cheers of children and adults at parties and celebrations. Balloons share the weightless, ephemeral nature of wishes. Once released from their ties they swirl into the sky, out of reach, and left to themselves. The idea of grunting pigs releasing students' wishes at an Open Day gave the name for this package. FIELD OF WISHES proposes a symbolic experiment which relies on the natural behaviour of pigs to turn over objects in search for their tasty delights. It is a poetic gesture summarising our effort to understand animal behaviour. The project has its origin in my endeavour to explore collaborations between art and science. The philosophy that art and science do not necessarily need to exclude each other opens a way to promote research which welcomes all aspects of life. This may include working with conceptual opposites, such as clarity and ambiguity, reason and intuition, fact and fiction, etc. My intention behind the project, FIELD OF WISHES, was to develop an educational package on animal behaviour. It is also intended as an artist's suggestion on how to raise awareness of the importance of science and technology in this area. When I began to research this project I quickly realised how laborious the task would be to design a concise, ready-to-use package for teachers. The range of topics on animal behaviour is vast and the wealth of information abundant. Teachers, schools and classes have their own preferences and expectations in running a course on animal behaviour. The chance for an artist working in this field lies in offering an incentive for teachers and curriculum writers to take on such a course. I decided that the package would suggest a possible approach and encourage further research, preferably shared with the students. The work leading to this package was very rewarding. Collaborating with Jacob Tammens' year 9/10 agriculture studies class from the Sheffield District High School in Tasmania was a lot of fun, and demonstrated the general interest students have in animal behaviour. The future holds the challenge for these students to cater for the needs of a growing world population. This task is not without problems. As in any agricultural field, working with animals requires both knowledge and creativity. It is up to schools and institutions dealing with animal health and animal welfare to equip young people with the necessary tools to develop solutions. FIELD OF WISHES can also be used as an incentive to develop a larger package on animal behaviour including worksheets, slides and video material. It would be an exciting project involving a group of experts backed up by their institutions and societies. This, at least, would be a wish which I'd be ready to attach to a balloon. Contents Information for School Principals and Curriculum Coordinators Understanding animal behaviour The key reasons to teach animal behaviour Why choose the package FIELD OF WISHES? Legislation Further Readings The Teacher's Guide Strategies Working with Students Using the Materials The PIGVISION Experiments Working with Animals Literature on Animal Behaviour Scientific Journals Addresses Check out the following WWW addresses FOCUS AREA 1 A Study of Maternal Behaviour A Study of Milk Ejection Exploring the Animal's Senses FOCUS AREA 2 The Animal and its Environment A Study of AI Technology The Behaviour in Paddocks The Intelligence of Animals Handling Animals FOCUS AREA 3 Designing Environments Animal Health and Suffering Animal Welfare and Ethics FOCUS AREA 4 The PIGVISION Experiments The Poetics of Measuring Materials and Animals Environmental Concerns Working around the World Promoting your Activity Preliminary Experiments Information for School Principals and Curriculum Coordinators Understanding animal behaviour Animal behaviour is complex. There are many approaches to increasing our understanding of it. A common way to study behaviour is observing and describing what is actually happening in the field. This task can become quite intricate as minute body movements or tensions in the animal's posture often indicates what is going to happen next. Think of the observational skills the owner of a dog has to have in sheep dog trials! Another approach involves the search for biological and physiological explanations. Why did an animal react in a specific way? Are hormones involved? Often, the environment needs to be studied in as much detail as the animal since environmental processes play a part in the interactions. The environment changes often, too! Finally, explanatory models may become outdated because new findings in research change the way we interpret behaviour. Acquiring knowledge on animal behaviour is an ongoing project. Understanding is gained through continually exploring a multiplicity of phenomena, perspectives and reflections. This open-ended way of understanding animal behaviour enables people to compromise and assess sometimes quite contradicting requirements and responsibilities in their work, in discussions and debates. The key reasons to teach animal behaviour Animals will always attract our attention in one way or another. We see them in films and books. They live as friends inside our houses, share our environment and provide us with food and materials. We are dependent on them, and yet, it is our behaviour which largely determines the nature of the relationship. The quality of the lives of animals under human control has increasingly become the focus of public concern. People who own and work with animals are having to comply with more and more legislation dictating acceptable treatment of their animals. Continuing debates are likely to put pressure on education policies. The link between animal behaviour and determining acceptable treatment policies, will not necessarily be overt. Even when examining clinical aspects of animal care such as food hygiene and quality, however, it eventually becomes apparent that knowledge on animal behaviour is essential to ensure good health and quality product. Schools have an important role to play in the way we learn to understand animal behaviour. As well as meeting curriculum requirements, it is a great opportunity to involve students in a fascinating and colourful subject. The complexity of the issues involved provide scope for scientific research and interdisciplinary studies. Schools offering agricultural studies are well placed to offer innovative programs of this type, possibly involving the local community. Why choose the package FIELD OF WISHES? FIELD OF WISHES is an educational package providing teachers with a range of information and suggestions on how to structure a course on animal behaviour. The resources have been reviewed by educational people and some of the exercises have been designed and trialled in cooperation with an agricultural studies teacher and his high school students. Publications from the Curriculum Corporation and the National Association of Agricultural Educators have been the source for ideas and concepts on how to structure the package. The fact that the package has been designed for teachers of year 9/10 agricultural studies classes should not deter curriculum writers and teachers from other disciplines and levels to use and adapt the materials. This package is unique in that it explores the interface between art and science. It includes four PIGVISION experiments in which students investigate the pig's feeding behaviour. The experiments have also been designed to raise student awareness of the role and importance of scientific research in agriculture. Research is moving into increasingly complex areas. To meet these challenges scientists need to be able to work in many styles and from a variety of perspectives. Science needs to be recognised as one of many valuable tools serving students and the public, not the other way round. The unusual design of the experiments in this package shifts the dominant scientific paradigm, demonstrating the open mindedness and creativity which science needs to progress. This kit, as mentioned, uses unexpected approaches to research. The four experiments have an artistic angle - they can be seen both as artistic performances and research activities. This combination of artistic and scientific elements opens up a new space where enthusiasm and vision are created in the endeavour to understand life. Legislation Understanding animal behaviour is essential when assessing the health and welfare needs of animals in captivity. Failure to meet both the physical and behavioural needs of animals over a period of time contributes to the development of stress related diseases. Animal health problems are not only an ethical issue. They become a public health concern in animal industries when food quality is negatively affected. This may take the form of contamination with germs and chemical residues. States and Territories have introduced a range of legislation which make people and institutions dealing with animals responsible for their actions. The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act and the Domestic (Feral and Nuisance) Animals Act include legally binding obligations, while a number of Codes of Practices provide additional information regarding animal housing and handling. The Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals (Control of Use) Act and the Livestock Disease Control Act impose standards which must be met in relation to animal health. Schools offering agricultural studies in their curriculum have a moral obligation to make students aware of current standards and responsibilities in animal health and welfare. Further Readings National Association of Agricultural Educators; Agriculture - a perspective for Australian schools. Publishing Services, Facilities and Services Directorate, Department of Education, Queensland, 1995. Science - a curriculum profile for Australian schools. Curriculum Corporation, Carlton VIC, 1994. Studies of society and environments - a curriculum profile for Australian schools. Curriculum Corporation, Carlton VIC, 1994. Technology - a curriculum profile for Australian schools. Curriculum Corporation, Carlton VIC, 1994. Addresses National Association of Agricultural Educators PO Box 5300 Sydney NSW 2001 Australia Telephone: 02 9367 8165 Fax: 02 9367 8476 Curriculum Corporation 141 Rathdowne St Carlton VIC 3053 Australia Telephone: 03 9207 9600 Fax: 03 9639 1616 http://www.curriculum.edu.au The Director Science and Technology Awareness Section Department of Industry, Science and Tourism GPO Box 9839 Canberra ACT 2601 Australia The Teacher's Guide Understanding animal behaviour opens a door to their world. This insight enables us to develop a much deeper and more rewarding relationship with them. After all, they are our companions on planet Earth. Sometimes watching an animal is like looking into a mirror. We gain insight into our own behaviour and existence. For instance, a young child hiding behind its mother when an adult person enters the scene behaves the same way as young animals do in situations of danger. These valuable intangible aspects of studying animal behaviour compliment the more pragmatic reasons for devoting time to this fascinating field of study. Animal behaviour is inevitably linked with animal welfare, which has been the focus of considerable attention since the mid 1980s. Legislation now requires that people working with animals know their legal responsibilities. Young, aspiring farmers, likely to work in animal husbandry, will benefit from learning to understand animal behaviour. Being able to identify animal needs and to optimise animal health and welfare strengthens the farm, both in the public eye and in the accountant's office. The package, FIELD OF WISHES, provides resources for teachers to develop a course on animal behaviour. Agricultural studies teachers may like to use the whole framework to develop a class theme. Alternatively, some topics can be lifted from the package for integration into a course on a closely related subject. This guide explains the framework of the package and offers many ideas on how to use it effectively and creatively. The diversity of materials recommended by the package allows flexibility and accommodates a wide variety of approaches. Strategies There are many ways of approaching the subject of animal behaviour, depending on different intentions and interests. This package has adopted a philosophy which emphasises the use of practical activities to gain an understanding of animal behaviour and inspire students to act on their new knowledge. Through these activities, students will acquire skills and knowledge to reflect on, and consequently change, their handling of animals. In a conventional problem solving context, action requires an ability to: understand the situation identify the problems develop multiple perspectives formulate and evaluate solutions The framework of the package is based on these four key elements of problem solving. Each element is treated as a separate focus area. Learning to understand behaviour begins with focussing on the body and its variety of expressions, postures and movements. The possibilities and limits of language play an important role in shaping our knowledge of basic phenomenona in animal behaviour. In the next step the focus broadens, encompassing the interaction between an animal and its environment. It is in its interaction with its surroundings that an animal's behaviour indicates the potentials and deficiencies of our handling. The third focus area addresses the reason why knowledge on animal behaviour is important and what the challenge of new findings in research may pose. Research in animal behaviour and the presentation of knowledge are addressed in the fourth focus area. Working with Students Anyone can give students dry, textbook information. As you know, students quickly become bored with this type of teaching. The challenge is, to develop an interesting method of delivery which still meets curriculum requirements. This package is designed to help you meet that challenge. Here are some key rules for making learning interesting: Create a receptive environment. Involve the students in the planning process. Work collaboratively. Keep the course open-ended. Celebrate your research. FIELD OF WISHES is based on meeting these learning ideals. Create a receptive environment Students interested in animal behaviour are eager to learn more about it. It is useful to start by letting them explain what they already know and what they want to learn. Interest can be stimulated by providing real purposes for doing and learning, such as training or handling animals. Some students may bring in newspaper clippings or come up with a quite philosophical question like 'do animals think?'. Learning is easier when we see patterns and relationships between what we know and what we seek to understand. Involve students in the planning process Planning their own course provides students with first hand experience about the ways complex issues are approached. Draw a planning chart with your class, starting with a list of topics and things to do. Highlight interconnections with other curriculum areas and single out relevant processes. A colourful planning chart will become a motivating guide throughout the course. In a final presentation the chart will become the core evidence of your class's activity and involvement in its own research. Work collaboratively Working collaboratively means that multiple perspectives are generated and debated. Explore all possible strategies for enabling students to contribute. Investigations and research allow for many different roles. Some students may prefer to work with equipment, while others like to handle animals. Video recordings of animal behaviour taken by yourself or the students are valuable resource materials for later use in class room studies. Invite people from outside your class or school, such as another teacher, a farmer, a veterinarian, etc to join in as a resource person. Organise discussion groups, or encourage students to conduct interviews and surveys. In this way, students learn that knowledge is constructed through complex processes involving people - not just as something which already exists which they simply need to process. Keep the course open-ended An open-ended approach encourages a diversity of views and perspectives. Do not occupy the role of expert and don't impose solutions and your view. Instead, pose questions instead and allow students to develop their own principles for judging methods of understanding and interpretation. Raising contradictions and co-learning are effective approaches to use in the classroom. Our relationship with animals is determined by attitudes, representations, commonly held beliefs and 'hidden' assumptions which change over time. An open-ended course reveals this diversity and makes a critical reflection on observations and experiences possible. Celebrate your research Learning is more likely to be retained if it is communicated to other people and connected to pleasurable experiences. Organise a conference or open class with your students where the strategy and results of their research are presented to an audience. Presentations can be developed in the form of speeches, debates, poster displays, video footage, etc. Use your school farm as a place to celebrate and show some life demonstrations, such as sheep yarding with a dog. The PIGVISION experiments in Focus Area 4 are especially designed to be presented at an Open Day celebrating an attractive collaboration between teacher, students and animals. Using the Materials All resource materials are set within a framework of four focus areas which are organised as follows: Key Issues Focus and Learning Outcomes Background Information Key Words Exercises Key Issues It is easy to lose orientation while studying a complex subject. The key issues are ideas on which a course can be structured. They propose a guiding thread through the program, which is flexible and adaptable to individual situations. Involving students in the planning process will quickly show whether there are more relevant issues. Focus and Learning Outcomes The broad range of issues associated with animal behaviour, make it an ideal subject to link up with the existing school curriculum. This section shows the relevance of animal behaviour studies to three of the eight key learning areas identified by the Australian Education Council in 1993. These include Science, Studies of Society and Environment and Technology. The outcomes describe the skill and knowledge a student typically acquires at level 6 and 7 (year 9/10). Their numbers are adopted from the relevant publication of the Curriculum Corporation, and indicate the level to which they belong, and the strand organiser within the learning area in question. Background Information The information given here is for teachers. It outlines the context of the selected topics on animal behaviour. Further information can be found in state libraries, university libraries, research institutes, government departments, societies dealing with animals and on the World Wide Web. It is important to familiarise yourself with the materials and to assess your context before you start adapting the information to your students' level of learning. Key Words The search for specific information is an important part of a student's learning process. The key words will help you and your students to organise a search on the World Wide Web, in scientific citation indices, on CD-Roms and in library catalogues. You'll be amazed by the wealth of information. Exercises The exercises in the package are designed to help students develop the skills to differentiate and describe their observations of animal behaviour. During the planning stage, encourage students to come up with simple exercises of their own. Make sure they keep them simple and stress the importance of patience. Try to think of animals and behaviours not mentioned here. Not all schools have their own farm. If your school has no farm animals, organise field excursions to nearby farms. You may also like to plan exercises with pet animals, or visit a zoo or a wildlife park. The PIGVISION Experiments It is easy to fall into a rigid pattern when investigating and explaining a natural phenomenon. Successful science, however, requires just about everything except dogmatism. The ability to analyse and reflect critically, creativity and imagination are all important skills. These skills are best learned in an open and productive environment. This package offers an unconventional way of investigating animal behaviour using artistic and scientific elements at the same time. The PIGVISION experiments form part of Focus Area 4, which deals with research on animal behaviour. The experiments investigate the pig's feeding behaviour and help to prepare for a final Open Day event. Alternatively, the results of the core experiment can be published on PIGVISION's World Wide Web site so that agricultural studies classes around the world can share your class's experiences and findings. Working with Animals The package describes exercises involving farm animals. They can be done on the farm of your school, or the farm of one of your student's parents. Basic issues of animal behaviour can also be studied with pet animals. Working with animals in a class involves the teacher taking responsibility for the health and safety of the animals, students and the teacher themself. Animals can suffer and receive injuries from irresponsible handling. They may also inflict serious injuries if handled carelessly. It is not safe enough just to be nice to an animal. If you don't have practical knowledge and experience in animal handling, you will need to have an experienced person present, such as a farmer or the owner of the animal. The PIGVISION experiments should involve young pigs of about 60-80 kg live weight to avoid accidents. Care should be taken that students behave in a manner that does not cause the pigs to panic. Animals trained in handling and accustomed to the environment are safer and easier to work with. Make sure that fences are secure, and please don't use an electric fence on an Open Day when small children are around. Literature on Animal Behaviour Barash, David P.; Sociobiology and Behaviour, Elsevier, North-Holland, Inc., New York, 1977. Bateson, Paul Martin; Measuring Behaviour - an introductory guide. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1986. Craig, James V.; Domestic Animal Behaviour: causes and implications for animal care and management. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1981. Fraser, A.F. and Broom, D.M.; Farm Animal Behaviour and Welfare. Third Edition, Bailli�re Tindall, London, 1990. Gould, James, L.; Ethology - the mechanism and evolution of behaviour. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., New York, 1982. Hart, Benjamin L.; The Behaviour of Domestic Animals. W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, 1985. Kiley-Worthington, M.; Behavioural Problems of Farm Animals. Oriel Press, Stocksfield, Northumberland, 1977. Kilgour, Ronald and Dalton, Clive; Livestock Behaviour - a practical guide. New South Wales University Press, Kensington NSW, 1984. Klopfer, Peter H.; An Introduction to Animal Behaviour. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1974. Ridley, Mark; Animal Behaviour - a concise introduction. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1986. Wood-Gush, D.G.M.; Elements of Ethology - a textbook for agricultural and veterinary students. Chapman and Hall, London, 1983. Scientific Journals Animal Behaviour, Academic Press, London. Animal Behaviour Abstracts, Cambridge Scientific Abstracts, Bethesda, Maryland, USA. Animal Welfare, Universities Federation for Animal Welfare (UFAW), Herts, GB. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Elsevier, Amsterdam. (Abbr: Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci.) Zeitschrift f�r Tierpsychologie (Journal of comparative ethology), Verlag Paul Parey, Berlin and Hamburg. (Abbr: Z Tierpsych.) Addresses Ms Glenys Oogjes ANZFAS (Australian & New Zealand Federation of Animal Societies) 1st Floor 37 O'Connell Street North Melbourne VIC 3051 Telephone: 03 9329 6333 Fax: 03 9329 6441 Bureau of Animal Welfare 240 Victoria Parade East Melbourne VIC 3002 Tel: 03 03 9412 4011 RSPCA Australia PO Box e369 Kingston ACT 2604 Telephone: 06 282 8300 Fax: 06 282 8311 E-mail: rspca@ibm.net All State and Territories have their own RSPCAs Dr. Judith K. Blackshaw Associate Professor, Animal Behaviour & Welfare Department of Veterinary Science Veterinary School The University of Queensland St Lucia QLD 4072 Telephone: 07 3365 3311 Fax: 07 3365 1288 E-mail: j.blackshaw@mailbox.uq.edu.au Prof. Paul Hemsworth Animal Welfare Centre VIAS Private Bag 7 Sneydes Rd Werribee VIC 3030 Telephone: 03 9742 0444 Fax: 03 9742 0400 E-mail: hemsworthp@hari.agvic.gov.au Jim Scott CEO Science Science Unit Department of School Education Curriculum Directorate 3a Smalls Rd Ryde NSW 2112 Allan McKinnon Manager Animal Welfare Unit Animal and Plant Health Service Queensland Department of Primary Industries GPO Box 46 Brisbane QLD 4001 Telephone: 07 3235 4301 Fax: 07 3239 3510 Public Health and Animal Welfare Section Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries New Town Research Laboratories St Johns Avenue NEW TOWN TAS 7008 Telephone: 03 6233 6875 Fax: 6278 1875 Dr Robin Vandegraaff Chief Veterinary Officer Manager of Animal Health Primary Industries South Australia GPO Box 1671 Adelaide SA 5001 Tel: 08 8207 7970 Fax: 08 2307 7852 Dr Geoff Griffiths Manager Animal Welfare Project Agriculture Western Australia 3 Baron-Hay Court South Perth WA 6151 Tel: 08 9368 3620 Fax: 08 9367 6248 Dr Will Andrew ACT Veterinary Officer ACT Parks and Conversation Service PO Box 726 Jamieson Centre ACT 2908 Telephone: 06 207 2357 Fax: 06 207 2361 Dr Peter Carter Division of Animal Health CSIRO PO Box 238 Berwick VIC 3806 Telephone: 03 9707 2098 Fax: 03 5227 5250 Director Animal Welfare and Product Integrity Section Department of Primary Industries and Energy GPO Box 858 Canberra ACT 2601 Telephone: 06 272 4971 Fax: 06 272 5089 Secretary National Consultative Council for Animal Welfare C/- Animal Welfare and Product Integrity Section Department of Primary Industries and Energy GPO Box 858 Canberra ACT 2601 Telephone: 06 272 4971 Fax: 06 272 5089 Dr Robert Baker ANZCCART (Australian and New Zealand Council for Care of Animal in Research and Teaching) PO Box 19 Glen Osmond SA 5064 Telephone: 08 8303 7393 Fax: 08 8303 7113 NSW Board of Studies Jenni Wilkins President National Association of Agricultural Educators PO Box 5300 Sydney NSW 2001 Telephone: 02 9367 8165 Fax: 02 9367 8476 Dr. R.G. Beilharz Agriculture and Resource Management University of Melbourne Parkville VIC 3052 Telephone: 03 9344 4579 Fax: 03 9344 5570 Dr. David Bayvel National Manager Animal Welfare & Environment Ministry of Agriculture PO Box 2526 Wellington New Zealand Telephone: 0011 64 4 474 4251 Fax: 0015 64 4 4730 118 Dr Allen Bryce Chief Veterinary Officer Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries GPO Box 990 Darwin NT 0801 Telephone: 08 8999 2131 Fax: 08 8999 2089 Check out the following WWW addresses: http://www.hbck.co.uk/ap/journals/ar/ http://www.elsevier.nl/locate/applanim http://www.elsevier.com/locate/appanim http://toolshed.artschool.utas.edu.au/PigVision/ http://cricket.unl.edu/NBBG.html http://www.melbourne.net/animals_australia/ http://webtwo.rsnz.govt.nz/anzccart/anzccart.html http://www.curriculum.edu.au http://res.agr.ca/PUB/CDRN/portfoli/private/jeff/int_site.html http://www-pdic.vet.cam.ac.uk/Other_Source/Net/site_welf_beh.html http://res.agr.ca/PUB/CDRN/portfoli/private/jeff/Nzconf.html FOCUS AREA 1 Key Issues Tracing the anatomical and physiological basis of animal behaviour patterns. Seeing the diversity of behaviour patterns. Recognising differences, changes, similarities in movements, postures and emotions. Focus and Learning Outcomes Science: Life and living: 6.8. Explains how living things obtain, store and transport nutrients, transform energy and manage wastes. Working scientifically: 7.13. identifies advantages and limitations of controlled experiments and describes alternatives. Technology: Designing, Making and Appraising: 6.1. analyses how needs, resources and circumstances affect the development and application of particular technologies. Background Information Our knowledge on animal behaviour is often intuitive and subliminal. We have learned to handle animals through experience. Children growing up on farms take over the skills and habits of their parents and stock handlers. This is often no more than being able to do routine work. Only in special cases, such as sheep dog training, is the phenomenon of behaviour consciously studied. The underlying idea of Focus Area 1 is to raise awareness by learning to differentiate and to describe behaviour patterns. Animals interact dynamically with their environment, both animate and inanimate. Their behaviour is a mixture of inherited and acquired components, which have specific functions. The principal physiological features of behaviour have their origin in the neural and endocrine system of the animal body. The central nervous system includes a range of receptors which receive internal or external stimulation. Stimuli can be chemical, thermal or mechanical, and when built up to an adequate level they provide train of nerve impulses. These waves of electrical activity comprise the information which controls the interaction between the brain, the endocrine system and muscles. The principal sense organs include the organs of sight, smell, taste and hearing. The specialisation and acuity of the sense organs vary considerably between species, and often determine characteristic differences in behaviour. The endocrine system is different to the nervous system. They cooperate with each other, however, through processes of neural secretion and through effects of hormones on the brain. Hormone secretion by individual endocrine glands create the animal's internal state, which is responsible for part of the underlying motivation of a complex chain of behaviour patterns. Motivation induces a goal-directed quality of behaviour. In ethology, the science of animal behaviour, certain specific motivations are called drives, such as the sexual, maternal and feeding drives. References: Fraser, Andrew F.; Farm Animal Behaviour. Second Edition, Bailli�re Tindall, London, 1980. Key Words acuity, adrenal gland, adrenalin, androgens, auditory, body language, catecholamine neurons, central nervous system, cerebral cortex, cerebrum, copulatory responses, corticosteroid secretion, DNA, dopamine neurons, ejaculatory responses, endorphins, erection, estrogen, estrous behaviour, estrus, ethology, exteroceptors, feeding drive, flehmen behaviour, flight behaviour, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), frequency, gonadal hormones, gonads, gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (Gn-RH), gustatory stimuli, homeostasis, hormones, hypothalamus, inhibin, inhibitory effect, interoceptors, limbic system, luteinizing hormone (LH), maternal drive, medulla, meiosis, melatonin, mitosis, monogamous mating, nerve impulses, oestradiol, olfaction, olfactory, ovary, ovulation, oxytocin, peptides, pheromones, photoperiodism, pineal gland, pituitary gland, polygamous mating, precopulatory responses, preovulatory LH peak, proceptive responses, progesteron, prostaglandin, receptors, seasonality, sense organs, sexual drive, somasthetic, spermatogenesis, steroid substances, stimulus, synapses, testicles, testis, testosterone, threat behaviour, thyroid gland, thyroxine, veterinary ethology, vesicular follicles, visual Exercises: Study of maternal behaviour The suckling behaviour of sows Paint numbers with brush and ink on the backs of the piglets in one litter . Record suckling behaviour of sows and piglets with a video camera. Study the video in class and sequence the behaviour patterns. Determine how the sow gathers the piglets and how she lies down. Count the rate of the sow's grunts. Describe the suckling movements of the piglets. What sequences can you identify? Do the piglets stay in the same order? How long is the actual milk let down period? How do sow and piglets interact? Can you detect a regular pattern in the sow's grunts? How many times a day does suckling occur? Who initiates a suckling session, and how is it done? Further Readings: Castr�n, H., Algers, B., Jensen, P. and Saloniemi, H., 1989. Suckling behaviour and milk consumption in newborn piglets as a response to sow grunting. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 24: 227-238. Cronin, G.M. and Smith, J.A., 1992. Suckling behaviour of sows in farrowing crates and straw-bedded pens. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 33: 175-189. Fraser, D., 1980. A review of the behavioural mechanism of milk ejection of the domestic pig. Appl. Anim. Ethol., 6: 247-255. Jensen, P., Stangel, G. and Algers, B., 1991. Nursing and suckling behaviour of semi-naturally kept pigs during the first 10 days postpartum. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 31:195-209. Alternatives: Study the suckling behaviour of sheep, cattle, goats. A study of milk ejection Explain the physiology and hormonal processes involved in milk ejection. Develop a method to measure the time between the beginning of stimulation and milk ejection in dairy cows. Plot the data. Formulate a possible link between the milk ejection reflex and mastitis. Write to companies manufacturing milking machines and ask them about the importance of the milk ejection reflex. How is the design of milking machines adapted to milk ejection behaviour? What practical consequence has the milk ejection reflex for the milking procedure? Further Readings: Arave, C.W. and Albright, J.L., 1981. Cattle behaviour. J. Dairy Sci., 64:1318-1329. Prospects for automatic milking. Proceedings of the international symposium on prospects for automatic milking, Wageningen, Netherlands. 23-25 November 1992 (edited by: Ipema. A.H., Lippus, A.C., Metz. J.H.H., Rossing, W.) Exploring the animal's senses How do hens perceive the world? Explain the anatomy of the sense organs. Test a hen's vision by feeding it smaller and smaller pieces of one single grain on a clean surface. Test olfactory gustatory stimuli for hens by spraying pellets with food essences such as vanilla, almond, rosewater. Determine whether it rejects pellets by smell or taste. Record and collect different vocalisation sounds of hens. Play them in class and identify the meaning. Test whether the playback of a warning sound or the hen's call for the rooster has the same effect, and at which volume the effect fails. How long does it take a hen to find a single grain among sand and gravel with similar structural size? Would a single grain coloured with food dye attract the hen's attention more quickly? Will a hen react to its reflection in a mirror? At what age does a young chick manage to pick at an object? What kind of environmental sounds may have an effect on hens? Investigate their effect on animals. Alternatives: Develop an experiment to test the pig's sense of smell. Suggestion: hang a dozen empty milk cartons from the ceiling so that the pigs can't look inside but are still able to grab them. Fill one or two with food. Test food preferences as well, by having different kind of foods in the cartons. Do pigs prefer liquid or solid food? Will a pig find an apple or a potato burried in the soil? How deep will it search for it? Can sheep recognise food sources in a paddock from the distance? Further Readings: Bazely, D.R. and Ensor, C.V., 1989. Discrimination learning in sheep with cues varying in brightness and hue. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 23:293-299. Evans, C.S., Evans, L. and Marler, P., 1993. On the meaning of alarm calls functional reference in an avian vocal system. Animal Behaviour, 46:23-38. Hurnik, J.F., Jerome, F.N., Reinhart, B.S. and Summers, J.D., 1973. Colour as a stimulus for the choice of their nesting site by laying hens. Br. Poult. Sci., 14:1-8. Kendrick, K., 1990. Through a sheep's eye. New Scientist, 12 May (no 1716):62-65. Piggins, D. and Phillips, C.J.C., 1996. The eye of the domesticated sheep with implications for vision. Animal Science, 62:301-308. Study of AI Technology Detecting Oestrus Study the hormonal processes involved in male and female sexual behaviour. Record and identify behaviour signs of oestrus. Design an oestrus detection program for cattle, pigs and sheep. Investigate the use and commercial system of AI services in your region. Investigate the causes and effects of fertility problems. How do the oestrus signs show up during milking? What does synchronisation mean? What is Flehmen behaviour? What are the advantages and drawbacks of AI? Further Readings: Alrich, R.D., 1993. Endocrine and neural control of estrus expression in dairy cattle. Journal of Dairy Science, 76 (Suppl. 1):10. Hafez, E.S.E.. Reproduction in farm animals. 6th edition. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, 1993. Phillips, C.J.C. and Schofield, S.A., 1990. The effect of environment and stage of the oestrus cycle on the behaviour of dairy cows. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 27:21-31. Rodriguez Iglesias, R.M., Ciccioli, N.H., Irazoqui, H. and Rodriguez, B.T., 1991. Importance of behavioural stimuli in ram induced ovulation in seasonally anovular corriedale ewes. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 30:323-332. Tilbrook, A.J. and Hemsworth, P.H., 1990. Detection of oestrus in gilts housed adjacent or opposite boars or exposed to exogenous boar stimuli. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 28:233-245. Senger, P.L., 1993. The heat detection problem - new concepts, technologies and possibilities. Journal of Dairy Science 76 (Suppl. 1):311. Williamson, N.B., Morris, R.S., Bloods, D.C. and Cannon, M., 1972. A study of oestrus behaviour and oestrus detection methods in a large commercial herd. 1. The relative efficiency of methods of oestrus detection. Vet. Rec., 91:50-62. FOCUS AREA 2 Key Issues Exposing the dynamic and evolutionary character of the animal's interaction with the environment. Juxtaposing inherited, innate behaviour with flexible learning behaviour. Focus and Learning Outcomes Science: Life and Living: 6.7 analyses the effects of environmental change on living things and ecosystems. 7.7 evaluates scientific evidence about the long-term impact on ecosystems of human intervention. Working scientifically: 7.14 takes account of the limitations of techniques and instruments and their influence on the accuracy and reliability of an investigation. Technology: Designing, Making and Appraising: 7.2 creates and prepares detailed design and production proposals that: - use suitable graphics, technical language and standards; - explain the merits of different options; - describe social and cultural implications and resource costs; - describe, where relevant, the aesthetic, mathematical and scientific principles on which decisions are based. Information: 6.6 creates, transforms and processes information using procedures, conventions and languages associated with particular information technologies. Materials: 7.8 evaluates and uses techniques and equipment when working with materials to improve standards of safety, accuracy and presentation. Background Information The diversity of responses, activities and emotions is not the only reason why animal behaviour is difficult to understand. Focus Area 2 explores the interaction between the animal and its environment. It shows that species-typical behaviour patterns pose limitations on the way we can handle animals. But it also shows that we can make use of the flexible nature of learning behaviour to improve our animal handling systems. From birth to death an animal has to react in specific ways with its environment to guarantee its survival and self-maintenance. In evolutionary terms, the process of natural selection continually influences the genetic makeup of the species to fit its habitat. Genetic factors also affect the central nervous system, which mediates behaviour. A range of behaviours are deeply engraved in the genes of the species rendering its species-typical character over hundreds of generations. They include all reflex responses, which are typically prompt and brief with a high predictability. Aggression shows many forms of reflexes. Fraser counts seven further categories of behaviour associated with self-maintenance. They are feeding, exploration, kinesis, association, body care, territorialism and rest. Without an inherited flexibility of behaviour an animal would not be able to cope with the dynamic changes of its surroundings. Behaviour patterns show a mixture of innate responses and learned behaviour. Learning is a process in which behaviour is acquired or changed through reacting to a situation. It happens on a day-to-day basis from the early experiences of a growing animal to mature adulthood. Classical conditioning involves taking an innate response and associating the natural stimulus with a neutral stimulus. This phenomenon may occur inadvertently when, without administering pain, reflexes associated with fear, such as increase in blood pressure, sweating, slowing of intestinal motivity and general emotional activation are evoked by the simple appearance of people who frequently punish animals. Operant learning involves the use of rewards and punishment to reinforce and change the probability of a behaviour occurring again. Skillful observers can train animals to perform useful tasks to save time, effort and money on a farm, and make life more comfortable for the animals. References: Fraser, Andrew F.; Farm Animal Behaviour. Second Edition, Bailli�re Tindall, London, 1980. Hart, Benjamin L.; The Behaviour of Domestic Animals. W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, 1985. Key Words adaptive value, aggression, agonistic behaviour, anorexia, association, body care, castration, classical conditioning, competitive aggression, coprophagy, cross-fostering, death feign, defensive threat, dietary self-selection, diurnal, dominance position, early experience, eliminative behaviour, exploration, eye diversion, fear-induced aggression, feeding behaviour, fight, food preferences, grazing behaviour, grooming behaviour, idiopathic aggression, ingestion, inhibitory stimulus, intermale aggression, kinesis, lactation, learned aggression, maternal aggression, maternal behaviour, milk ejection reflex, monotocous, obesity, offensive threat , operant learning, pain-induced aggression, parturition, peck order, perambulation, piloerection, placentophagy, polytocous, postingestional effects, postparturient behaviour, predatory aggression, reactivity, reinforcement, rest, rumination, self-maintenance, shaping, social behaviour, solitary, stimulus control, submission, submissive behaviour, suckling behaviour, taste aversions, territorial-social aggression, territorialism, thermoregulation, threat, vocalisation Exercises: The animal and its environment The hen's environment - how much is still there? Draw a map of your chicken run, select a hen and map its movement and behaviour. Test the trance behaviour of a hen: by gently pressing its head and neck to the ground for a few seconds the hen will feign death. This is a reflex response against predators. When you tickle its feet it will stand up again. Test the goose/hawk sign: draw a cross shaped figure on cardboard where the wings join at about 3/4 length of the body. The reaction of hens when they see the figure moving above their head depends on the direction. Explain why. Study the pecking order of your hens: Draw a table with a column for each hen, title the columns with �picking hens�. Title the rows with �being picked� and have a row for each hen, too. When hen A picks hen B, for instance, draw a mark in the crossing of column A and row B. How do the features of your chicken run affect the hen's behaviour? Do battery hens find grain underneath straw? How does the light influence the hen's behaviour? What role do roosters play? Alternatives: Study the urination and defaecation behaviour of pigs. Further Readings: Fraser, A.F., 1989. Animal welfare theory: the keyboard of the maintenance ethosystem. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 22:177-190. Fraser, D., Phillips, P.A., Thompson, B.K. and Tennessen, T., 1991. Effect of straw on the behaviour of growing pigs. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 30:307-318. Gordon, S.H., 1994. Effects of daylength and increasing daylength programmes on broiler welfare and performance. World's Poultry Science Journal, 50 (Nov 1994):269-282. Lewis, N.J. and Christison, G.I., 1990. The maintenance behaviour and cleanliness of pigs in two tier weaner decks. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 27:33-40. Morris, T.R., 1994. Lighting for layers: what we know and what we need to know. World's Poultry Science Journal, 50 (Nov 1994):283-287. Muiruri, H.K., Harrison, P.C. and Gonyou, H.W., 1990. Preferences of hens for shape and size of roosts. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 27:141-147. Stolba, A. and Wood-Gush, D.G.M., 1984. The identification of behavioural key features and their incorporation into a housing design for pig. Ann. Rech. Vet., 15:287-298. The behaviour in paddocks Study the grazing behaviour of either cattle, sheep or goats and explain their different impact on the landscape. Identify the influences of seasonal and weather changes on grazing behaviour. Observe the behaviour of a herd when you release them into a new paddock. Record the behaviour of cows with a video camera when they line up for milking in a dairy yard. Record the order of milking. Do sheep and cattle select the same plants? Do sheep and cattle behave differently when they are in the same paddock? What role do older animals in a group play? What behavioural signs indicate scarce food? Which behaviour patterns would you take into account for the design of a sustainable grazing plan? When does fighting between animals occur? How stable is the milking order over a period of two weeks? Further Readings: Beilharz, R.G., and Zeeb, K., 1982. Social dominance in dairy cattle. Appl. Anim. Ethol., 8:79-97. Bailey, D.W., Walter, J.W. and Rittenhouse, L.R., 1990. Sequential analysis of cattle location: day-to-day movement patterns. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 25:137-148. Bennett, I.L., Finch, V.A. and Holmes, C.R., 1985. Time spent in shade and its relationship with physiological factors of thermoregulation in three breeds of cattle. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 13:227-236. Birrell, H.A., 1991. The effect of stocking rate on the grazing behaviour of corriedale sheep. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 28:321-331. Kabuga, J.D., Gari-kwaku, J. and Annor, S.Y., 1991. Social status and its relationship to maintenance behaviour in a herd of N'dama and West African Shorthorn Cattle. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 31:169-181. Marnier, S.L. and Alexander, A.J., 1991. Selective grazing behaviour in horses: development of methodology and preliminary use of tests to measure individual grazing ability. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 30:203-221. Rook, A.J. and Penning, P.D., 1991. Synchronisation of eating, ruminating and idling activity by grazing sheep. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 32:157-166. Terpstra, J.W. and Wilson, A.D., 1989. Grazing distribution of sheep and kangaroos in a semi-arid woodland. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 24:343-352. The intelligence of animals Test the learning ability of a rabbit by offering food in the centre of a simple maze. Invite a sheep dog trainer or owner to demonstrate the dog's skill. Watch a video of a sheep dog trial and explain the different tasks involved. Analyse the communication between dog and trainer. Study the play and exploratory behaviour of piglets. Develop a system where pigs control lighting, temperature and ventilation in their housing. How could you test the intelligence of a hen? Which one is the cleverest cow in your dairy herd? What character should a young sheep dog puppy have? How does a sheep dog manage to group the animals? What skills do you have to have to train a sheep dog? What is the difference between training a dog and training a cat? Further Readings: Anderson, O.M., Hulet, C.V., Slupe, W.L., Smith, J.N. and Murray, L.W., 1988. Response of bonded and non-bonded sheep to the approach of a trained border collie. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 21:251-257. Cavanagh, Rod. Australian Sheep Dogs. Training & Handling. Rod Cavanagh, �Stocklight', Whittlesea VIC 3757, Australia, 1990. Kilgour, R., Foster, T.M., Temple, W., Matthews, L.R. and Brenner, K.J., 1991. Operant technology applied to solving farm animal problems. An assessment. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 30: 141-166. McConnell, P.B. and Baylis, J.R., 1985. Interspecific communication in cooperative herding: accoustic and visual signals from human shepherds and herding dogs. Z. Tierpsych., 67: 302-328. Parsons, A.D. Training the working kelpie. Viking O'Neill, Penguin Books Australia Ltd, Ringwood VIC 3134, Australia, 1990. Seis, Colin. Working Dogs. Training for Sheep and Cattle. Inkata Press, Butterworth-Heinemann, Chatswood NSW 2067, 1995. Stolba, A., Hinch, G.N., Lynch, J.J., Adams, D.B., Munro, R.K. and Davies, H.I., 1990. Social organization of merino sheep of different ages, sex and family structure. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 27:337-345. Handling animals Reducing fear in animals Record an animal's behaviour when you approach it. Create a catalogue of your habits when you interact with animals. Experiment how you can teach an animal not to run away from you when you approach it. Train an animal to follow your call. What is the advantage of fearless animals? What are the signs of fear? Which human behaviours cause fear? Do animals have less fear in a group? How would you determine the ideal group size? How can you prevent panic in large animal housing systems? Further Readings: Barnett, J.L., Hemsworth, P.H. and Newman, E.A., 1994. Fear of humans and its relationship with productivity in laying hens at commercial farms. British Poultry Science, 33:699-710. Boivin, X., Le Neindre, P. and Clupin, J.M., 1992. Establishment of cattle-human relationships. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 32:325-335. Hemsworth, P.H., Barnett, J.L. and Coleman, G.J., 1993. The human-animal relationship in agriculture and its consequences for the animal. Animal Welfare, 2:33-51. Handling pigs Develop a handling system for weighing and loading pigs. Analyse the behaviours involved and the problems occuring. Choose materials for floors and loading ramps. Test the effort needed to teach pigs to run through a scale or walk onto a truck by themselves. Which habits do you have to change yourself? Alternatives: Study sheep shearing and drenching systems. Study cattle behaviour in handling systems and design a cattle yard. Record the behaviour with a video camera. Identify problems by interviewing and collaborating with farmers. Further Readings: Hemsworth, P.H., and Barnett, J.L., 1991. The effects of aversively handling pigs, either individually or in groups, on their behaviour, growth and corticosteorids. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 30:61-72. Hemsworth, P.H., Coleman, G.J. and Barnett, J.L., 1994b. Improving the attitude and behaviour of stockpeople towards pigs and the consequences on the behaviour and reproductive performance of commercial pigs. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 39:349-362. Video: Stockperson Behaviour and Fear of Humans by Pigs. A training programme developed by Pig Research & Development Corporation, Agriculture Victoria and La Trobe University. FOCUS AREA 3 Key Issues Putting skills and knowledge on animal behaviour to good use. Recognising the link between animal behaviour and animal health. Reconciliating ethical, biological and economical concerns. Focus and Learning Objectives Studies of Society and Environment: Resources: 7.11 analyses factors that influence productivity and conditions of work. Natural and Social Systems: 7.14 analyses ways in which review or reform has been or could be achieved through political and legal systems. Investigation, Communication and Participation: 6.16 explains various ways of viewing an issue and the information associated with it. 6.17 discusses the logic of and evidence for an argument or viewpoint. 7.18 judges actions of self and others in the light of available choices and avowed value positions. Background Information The formation of knowledge on animal behaviour is determined through cultural and social constraints, including general views and assumptions, scientific paradigms, economy, politics, etc. Focus Area 3 seeks to identify and comprehend the factors shaping our relationships with domestic animals. Animals have been domesticated for thousands of years for the purpose of providing food, fibre, labour, recreation, personal safety and companionship. There have been different stages of farming practices in agricutural history. In the early stage animals retained a close similarity to the wild forms. The selected species show certain behavioural characteristics which make them desirable for domestication. For example, animals which were highly social, nonterritorial, sexually promiscuous, nonselective feeders and ecologically flexible were most easily maintained. In successive stages humans increasingly controlled the breeding and slowly changed the genetic basis for the quality and quantity of the desired animal attributes, such as milk yield, growth rate, wool quality, and so forth. Other attributes, including many species-typical behaviour patterns, were of less interest, and stayed the same over hundreds of generations. These behaviour patterns define the animals needs and pose requirements for housing and handling to guarantee the animal's health and survival. In the second half of this century farming practices have changed so drastically that in some instances domestic animals are severely deprived of an opportunity to display natural behaviour, such as grooming behaviour and movement. A prolonged restraint of natural behaviour often causes behavioural and physiological stress leading to impaired immunological response, an erosion of animal health and economic losses. There is also an ethical dilemma as to whether improved productivity of farming systems justifies a decrease in animal welfare. Increasing public concern about animal welfare, food quality and public health have led to a mixture of legislative, regulatory and self-regulatory procedures within the framework provided by the Australian federal system. They make farmers and stock handlers responsible for their treatment of animals. The imposed standards define the bottom limit for animal care and do not necessarily guarantee an optimal relationship between the animal and the way it is housed, fed, cleaned, milked and eventually butchered. In animal husbandry, there is a much wider scope for knowledge on animal behaviour to be put to beneficial use than is often assumed. References: Hart, Benjamin L.; The Behaviour of Domestic Animals. W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, 1985. Key Words abnormal behaviour, affiliative behaviour, alliances, animal awareness, animal choice experiments, animal care, animal health, animal welfare, anomalous maternal behaviour, anomalous sexual behaviour, bar biting, behaviour disorders, cannibalism, compound social structure (dogs and swine), coprophagia, despotic hierarchy, dominance hierarchies, female grouping (cattle,sheep, goats), flank sucking, grooming behaviour, harem (horses), hypokinesthesia, hypostimulation, leadership, movement, multiangular hierarchy, nepotism, pain, pairing-territorial (songbirds), pathological oral activity, play, preputial sucking, prolonged sitting, senority, social aggregations, social facilitation, social grooming, social rank, solitary-territorial (cats), stereotype activity, stress, tail biting, temperament, territoriality, thermoregulation, unidirectional hierarchy, urine drinking, vacuum chewing. Exercises Animal housing systems Free range eggs Compare free range egg production and battery hen production. Identify the problems of different production systems. Design a large chicken farm which optimizes the animals' needs and economical conditions. Propose a possible use for microprocessors in fowl housing systems. Measure and draw the physical properties in an animal housing system, including spatial dimensions, temperature, temperature fluctuations, airflow patterns, airflow velocity, humidity, gas levels, illumination, noise levels. What are the costs and profit margins in egg production? How is the egg market structured? What are the legal responsibilities of operating a chicken farm? What standards does the code of accepted farming practice in the fowl industry propose? What could be a benefit of artificial dusk in a housing system? What are animal choice experiments? How can you show what kind of sand hens prefer for dust bathing? Further Readings: Aggrey, S.E., Kroetzl, H. and Foelsch D.W., 1990. Behaviour of laying hens during induced moulting in three different production systems. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 25:97-105. Appleby, M.C., McRae, H.E. and Peitz, B.E., 1984. The effect of light on the choice of nests by domestic hens. Appl. Anim. Ethol., 11:249-254. Dawkins, M., 1976. Towards an objective method of assessing welfare in domestic fowl. Appl. Anim. Ethol., 2:245-254. Faure, J.M., 1991. Rearing conditions and needs for space and litter in laying hens. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 31:111-117. Fölsch, D.W., Huber, H.U., Bölter, U. and Gozzoli, L., 1988. Research on alternatives to the battery system for laying hens. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 20:29-45. Savory, C.J., Wood-Gush, D.G.M. and Duncan, I.J.H., 1978. Feeding behaviour of a population of domestic fowls in the wild. Appl. Anim. Ethol., 4:13-27. Whyte, R.T., 1993. Aerial pollutants and the health of poultry farmers. World's Poultry Science Journal, 49 (July 1993):139-156. Animal health and suffering Ask your local veterinary officer about the most common health problems relating to animal behaviour. Look at a current or a recent health problem on your school farm or on the farm of one of your students, and suggest possible scenarios for improvement. Research the relationship between a production system, animal behaviour, health and performance. Explain the direct and indirect economic impact of abnormal behaviour. Propose an animal health monitoring system for large herd sizes. Learn to identify behavioural signs of suffering. Record grooming behaviour and describe their purpose. Indicate the importance of thermoregulation. What are the behavioural signs of frustration and depression? How would you define and measure stress? How can you prevent boredom and stereotypical behaviour patterns? Can you see a link between animal behaviour and the immune system? What is the difference between biological and economical performance. What could prevent tail biting in pigs? How would you prevent feather picking in fowl? Further Readings: Fraser, A.F., 1988. The appraisal and control of depression and distress in livestock. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 20:127-133. Luescher, U.A., Friendship, R.M., Lissemore, K.D. and McKeown, D.B., 1989. Clinical ethology in food animal practice. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 22:191-214. Nunn, M.J. and Thornber, P.M., (eds), 1996. Animal Health in Australia 1994. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. Tennessen, T., 1989. Coping with confinement features of the environment that influence animals' ability to adapt. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 22:139-149. Yousef, M.K., 1988. Animal stress and strain: definition and measurements. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 20:119-126. Animal welfare and ethics Research the legal responsibilities concerning animal welfare in your state. Trace the political history of animal welfare acts in parliament. Conduct a survey in your local community on animal rights. Form groups in your class with different priorities in animal welfare. Research your standpoints and debate animal welfare, ethics and farm management in a class conference. Formulate a hypothesis concerning animal consciousness and propose a research project. Create a philosophical discussion on the difference between animals and the human species. What is cruelty? What are Codes of Practice? Have domestic animals lost some natural behaviour patterns? Can animals reason? Which Government Departments deal with animal health and welfare? Which groups politically lobby for animal rights? What types of value systems and philosophies concerning animal welfare can you find? How do the views of urban and rural societies differ in regards to animal rights? Imagine being a pig farmer - how could you improve your relationship with consumers? Further Readings: Adams, D.B., 1994. Animal Welfare: How Science can help us. Resource Sciences Interface (February Issue): 14-21. Beilharz, R.G.,1988. Science and the politics of animal use in food production. The situation in Australia. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 20:143-150. Broom, D.M., Mendl, M.T. and Zanella, A.J., 1995. A comparison of the welfare of sows in different housing conditions. Animal Science, 61:369-385. Hurnik, J.F., 1988. Welfare of farm animals. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 20:105-117. Langford, M.J., 1989. Animal Welfare and Human Welfare. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 22:95-103. Nicol, C.J., 1996. Farm animal cognition. Animal Science, 62:375-391. O'Flynn, M.A. and O'Dea, J.D., 1996. The present state of national animal welfare policy. Australian Veterinary Journal, 73:121-124. Singer, Peter; Animal Liberation - a new ethics for our treatment of animals. Jonathan Cape Ltd, London, 1975. FOCUS AREA 4 Key Issues Encouraging interest in exploring animal behaviour. Promoting a research which embraces science, technology, ethics, personal beliefs and visions. Focus and Learning Outcomes Science: Working Scientifically: 7.14 takes account of the limitations of techniques and instruments and their influence on the accuracy and reliability of an investigation. 7.16 discusses the limitations of conclusions. 7.17 analyses the influence certain scientists have had on the way we think about the world. 7.18 reports on actions taken by scientists over concerns about responsible applications of science. Technology: Information: 7.6 creates, transforms and processes information to meet detailed specifications using specialised techniques associated with particular information technologies. Background Information Focus Area 4 centres on the science of animal behaviour, which is also called Ethology (from the Greek ethos, manner or behaviour). There are four key questions which have been triggering research into animal behaviour since the early history of science: How does it work? How did the behaviour arise during the lifetime of an animal? What is it for? How did the behaviour develop during the history of the species? Charles Darwin (1809 - 82) and a series of famous naturalists were the first pioneers in early ethology. Darwin demonstrated for the first time the link between an animal's environment and its behaviour. One of the key disputes in those times centred around the question of whether innate behaviour was inherited or whether every behaviour must be learned. Ivan Pavlov (1849 - 1936) was the first scientist to show that the phenomenon of learning includes inherited stimulus-response sequences, which may become replaced by an otherwise unrelated (�conditioned�) stimulus. Karl von Frisch (1886 - 1982) exploited Pavlov's discovery and revealed that not only are animals ideally adapted to their sensory worlds, but that they may sense features of the world to which we are blind. As consequence, scientists studying animal behaviour require the aid of technology to explore the animal's sensory world to which our evolution has denied us admission. A few decades later, Konrad Lorenz (1903 - 89), who became the generally acknowledged founder and namer of ethology, discovered most of the classic phenomena of ethology. Lorenz was obsessed with leaving the animal and its environment undisturbed in his studies. His experiments were mostly unplanned, and discoveries happened through skilled observation and often by chance. The Dutch zoologist Niko Tinbergen (1907 - 88) is the founder of experimental ethology. Blending Lorenz's concern for observation within the natural environment with a purely experimental approach, he was able to refine many of Lorenz's initial observations into general principles. A problem often encountered in interpreting animal behaviour is anthropomorphism, or, seeing animals as if they are human. A scientific approach begins with an initial question and preliminary observations. A hypotheses and cautious predictions lead to the research design and the selection of behavioural measures. With appropriate recording methods, data is collected, analysed and finally presented. References: Bateson, Paul Martin; Measuring Behaviour - an introductory guide. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1986. Gould, James, L.; Ethology - the mechanism and evolution of behaviour. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., New York, 1982. Key Words activity detectors, ad libitum sampling, anthropomorphism, categories, check sheets, consequences, continuous recording, correlations, deterministic, discrete units, duration, ethological approach, ethogram, ethology, event recorder, events, experimental research, exploratory data analysis, field experiments, field study, focal sampling, frequency, hides, hypothesis, intensity, latency, observational research, observer consistency, ontology, parameters, pen recorders, physiological research, plotting data, preliminary observation, probabilistic, reliability, repeated testing, rhythms, scan sampling, skinner box, sociobiology, spatial relation, states, statistics, stereotyped behaviour patterns, structure, validity, variables, verbal description, video recording The PIGVISION Experiments Introduction PIGVISION's FIELD OF WISHES offers an artistically inspired event promoting agricultural science at schools and research institutions. The event is both a playful, poetic gesture and a scientific experiment, which can be organised for an Open Day or a final celebration of a class theme. It symbolically links science, human desire and animal collaboration in a media attractive way, providing fun for students, visitors and animals. The Poetics of Measuring... For the experiment, every student receives a balloon filled with helium gas and a label. The students are asked to write a private wish onto the label. They fold it and attach it with a string to the balloon. The balloons are then fixed to the ground in a paddock by placing a log (or a brick) on top of the label. A piece of fruit is hidden underneath the log. At a given time, a number of pigs are released into the paddock. They will turn over the logs in search of food, releasing the balloons and the wishes into the sky. The scientific task includes the measuring of the time for each take off and the plotting of the data on a graph. Materials and Animals Pigs about 60 kg weight. Eight pigs are more fun than two. Paddock close to the piggery. Calculate at least 4 m2 per balloon and fence it with solid mesh wire. Pieces of apples, corn cobs, etc. Balloons and helium gas (small and large gas bottles can be obtained from party shops) Labels (can be cut out from light paper) Strings (1.2 m per balloon; use light wool rather than plastic) Pencils Stop watch The experiment is perfectly adapted to the pig's natural skill and behaviour to search for food underneath roots, stones, etc. The trialling of the experiment, however, showed that a few points should be noted: 1) Pigs which have already learned that food is underneath logs marked by a balloon will be less likely to explore other features in the paddock. This may be important for an Open Day as children like to see their balloon flying off quickly. You can train the pigs by marking a single food hiding spot in a paddock with a balloon. Repeat this experiment a few times the week before the final event. 2) A balloon will not fly away if the log or brick rolls over its string. You can prevent this from happening by either using small logs or making sure the string slips out at the ends of a log and not at its sides. 3) If a balloon accidently gets entangled, explodes or loses its label, make sure the wish has another chance to take off. An Open Day event should be well organised giving certain tasks and responsibilities to students, including: organising logs and food inflating balloons and attaching labels handing them out and recollecting them placing the balloons in the paddock handling the pigs recording the time plotting the data Environmental Concerns Party balloons are made from latex - a natural product from the rubber tree Hevea brasilliensis. Research has shown that latex balloons biodegrade at about the same rate as a leaf from an oak tree, depending on the environmental conditions. Please use light woollen strings to minimize the experiment's impact on the environment. Promoting your Activity It is important to learn how to promote an activity effectively. Experience will help later in life as a member of a society, association, research team, action group, etc. The Open Day experiment should become part of a display documenting the class's research on animal behaviour. You can combine the planning and development of the display with the course on animal behaviour, involving communication skills and information processing. A variety of activities and presentations will help create an interesting display, including: video recordings of animal behaviour photographs of your experiments presentation of preliminary notices, sketches, letters cartoons a colourful chart of individual research tasks data presented in different ways a summary of surveys models and technical drawings of suggested designs drawings of maps pamphlets which relate your findings to contemporary views and explain consequences you may also want to: highlight the importance of understanding animal behaviour and your research organise a small conference and invite guest speakers have a slide show offer games, word searches, puzzles, etc. have a display of books and brochures on animal behaviour sell cakes and organise brief demonstration tours on the school farm invite the media make your own interviews decorate your stall with straw bales, plants, farm produces, banners Working around the World There are many agricultural studies classes around the world, and the Internet makes it quite easy to communicate with each other. Through PIGVISION's world wide web site, agriculture classes have the opportunity to share their experiences and knowledge in researching animal behaviour. The document, called �Factfield�, contains a table where you can publish the results of your Field of Wishes experiment. You may also like to provide a link to your own web site. Preliminary Experiments Three preliminary experiments associated with the Open Day experiment help you to gain experience in exploring the pig's feeding behaviour. They show a playful, artistic approach and may provide you with lively pictures for the Open Day. Your audience will be happy to see that you had fun combining practical research with visionary and experimental activity. Suggestion: Form three groups in your class and give them the responsibility of one experiment each. Who's doing what? Two or three pigs are released into a paddock. The students study the pigs' exploration of the paddock by using small hand-held mirrors. Direct visual contact should be avoided. The teacher wears a mask and records the students comments without speaking and interfering for 10 minutes. Inside and outside the object. Wildlife observation often requires a hiding cabin. Both students and teacher build a simple cabin inside the paddock where they hide to study the pigs' exploration of objects. The objects are brought from home and can be quite large, such as a bicycle, a pram, a chair, a tyre, etc. The objects have to be wrapped in paper before being placed in the paddock. Video recordings and photographs should be taken of the pigs' activities. Looking for intelligence! A 5x5 plot grid is laid over the paddock, and bricks or wooden logs are placed on all 25 corner points. When all students are blindfolded the teacher hides food (pieces of fruit) underneath three bricks/logs and marks them with a balloon. The time is measured between the release of the pigs and the discovery of each food hiding place. The blindfolded students signal whenever they think a pig has found some food. The teacher records the time of these signals. The experiment should be repeated five times, and the data graphically illustrated.